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Confucius and early Chinese Philosophy 551 – 479 BCE Bibliography Robert
Audi, General Editor. The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995). Wing-Tsit Chan, Translator.
A Source Book in Chinese
Philosophy. (Princeton, NY: Princeton University Press, 1973 [1963]). Thomas
Cleary, Translator. Sun Tzu:
The Art of War. (Boston,
MA: Shambhala,
1991). Ingrid
Discher-Schreiber, Franz-Karl Ehrhard,
Kurt Friedrichs and Michael Diener. The
Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion: A Complete Survey… (Boston, MA: Shambhala, 1994). D.
C. Lau, Translator. Lao Tzu. (London, UK: Penguin Classics, 1987 [1963]). _____. Mencius. (London, UK: Penguin Classics, 1970). James
Legge, Translator.
Confucius: Confucian Analects, The Great Learning
& The Doctrine of the Mean.
(New York, NY: Dover
Publications, Inc., 1971 [1893]). _____. The
Works of Mencius. (New York,
NY: Dover Publications, Inc., 1970
[1895]). Peimin Ni.
On Confucius. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2002). Burton
Watson, Translator. Chuang Tzu: Basic Writings. (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1996 [1964]). Confucianism
(Ju-Chia): “A Chinese school of thought and set of
moral, ethical, and political teachings usually considered to be founded by
Confucius. Before the time of Confucius, (551-479 BCE), a social group, the Ju (literally, ‘weaklings’ or ‘foundlings’), existed
whose members were ritualists and sometimes also
teachers by profession. Confucius belonged to this group; but although he
retained the interest in rituals, he was also concerned with the chaotic
social and political situation and with the search for remedies, which he
believed to lie in the restoration and maintenance of certain traditional
values and norms. Later thinkers who professed to be followers of Confucius
shared such concern and belief and, although they interpreted and developed
Confucius’ teachings in different ways, they are often regarded as belonging
to the same school of thought, traditionally referred to by Chinese scholars
as Ju-chia, or the school or the Ju. The term ‘Confucianism’ is used to refer to some or
all of the range of phenomena including the way of life of the Ju as a group of ritualists,
the school of thought referred to as Ju-chia, the
ethical, social, and political ideals advocated by this school of thought
(which include but go well beyond the practice of rituals), and the influence
of such ideals on the actual social and political order and the life of the
Chinese. As a school of thought, Confucianism is characterized by a common
ethical ideal which includes an affective concern for all living things,
varying in degree and nature depending on how such things relate to oneself;
a reverential attitude toward others manifested in the observance of formal
rules of conduct such as the way to receive guests; an ability to determine the
proper course of conduct, whether this calls for observance of traditional
norms or departure from such norms; and a firm commitment to proper conduct
so that one is not swayed by adverse circumstances such as poverty or death.
Everyone is supposed to have the ability to attain this ideal, and people are
urged to exercise constant vigilance over their character so that they can
transform themselves to embody this ideal fully. In the political realm, a
ruler who embodies the ideal will care about and provide for the people, who
will be attracted to him; the moral example he sets will have a transforming
effect on the people. Different Confucian thinkers have different conceptions
of the way the ethical ideal may be justified and attained. Mencius (371-289?
BCE) regarded the ideal as a full realization of certain incipient moral
inclinations shared by human beings, and emphasized the need to reflect on
and fully develop such inclinations. Hsun Tzu (fl.
298-238 BCE) regarded it as a way of optimizing the satisfaction of presocial human desires, and emphasized the need to learn
the norms governing social distinctions and let them transform and regulate
the pursuit of satisfaction of such desires. Different kinds of Confucian
thought continued to evolve, yielding such major thinkers as Tung Chung-shu (second century BCE) and Han Yu (768-824 CE). Han Yu
regarded Mencius as the true transmitter of Confucius’ teachings, and this
view became generally accepted, largely through the efforts of Chu Hsi (1130-1200). The Mencian
form of Confucian thought continued to be developed in different ways by such
major thinkers as Chu Hsi, Wang Yang-ming (1472-1529), and Tai Chen (1723-77), who differed
concerning the way attain the Confucian ideal and the metaphysics
undergirding it. Despite these divergent developments, Confucius continued to
be revered within this tradition of thought as its first and most important
thinker, and the Confucian school of thought continued to exert great
influence on Chinese life and on the social and political order down to the
present century.” Confucius:
“also known as K’ung Ch’iu,
K’ung Tzu, Kung Fu-tzu
(551-479 BCE). Chinese thinker usually regarded as founder of the Confucian
school of thought. His teachings are recorded in the Lun
Yu or Analects, a collection of sayings by him and his disciplines, and of
conversations between him and his disciples, and His highest ethical ideal is
jen (humanity, goodness), which includes an
affective concern for the well-being of others, desirable attributes such as yung (courage, bravery). An important part of the
traditional norms governing conduct between along which a critical reflection
on such norms and stances. Human conduct should not be dictated by fixed
rules, but should be sensitive to relevant considerations and should accord
with yi (rightness, duty). Other important concepts
include shu (consideration, reciprocity), which
involves not doing to another what one would not have wished done to oneself,
and chung (loyalty, commitment), interpreted variously
as a commitment to the exercise of shu , to the
norms of li, or one’s duties toward superiors and
equals. The ideal of jen is within reach of all,
and one should constantly reflect on one’s character and powers that should
ideally be the basis or provide for the people, who will be attracted to him,
and the moral example he sets will inspire the people, who will be attracted
to him, and the moral example he sets will inspire people to reform
themselves.” jen: “Chinese
philosophical term, important in Confucianism variously translated as
‘kindness’, ‘humanity’, or ‘benevolence’. Scholars disagree as to whether the it has the basic meaning of an attribute distinctive
of certain aristocratic clans, or the basic meaning of kindness, especially
kindness of a ruler to his subjects. In Confucian thought, it is used to
refer both to an all encompassing ethical ideal for human beings (when so
used, it is often translated as ‘humanity’, ‘humanness’, or ‘goodness’), and
more specifically to the desirable attribute of an emotional concern for all
living things, the degree and nature of such concern varying according to
one’s relation to such things (when so used, it is often translated as ‘benevolence’ ). Later Confucians explain jen in terms of one’s being sensitive and responsive to
their well-being. In the political realm, Confucians regard jen as ideally the basis of government. A ruler with jen will care about and provide for the people, and
people will be attracted to the ruler and be inspired to reform themselves.
Such a ruler will succeed in bringing order and be without rivals and will
become the true king (wang).” li: (1) “Chinese term meaning ‘pattern’, ‘principle’, ‘good order’,
‘inherent order’ or ‘to put to order’. During the Han dynasty (about 136 BCE),
li described not only the pattern of a given thing,
even, or process, but the underlying grand pattern of everything, the deep
structure of the cosmos. Later, Hua-yen Buddhists,
working form the Mahayana doctrine that all things are conditioned and related
through past causal relationships, claimed that each thing reflects the li of all things. This influenced Neo-Confucians, who
developed a metaphysics of li
and ch’i (ether), in which all things possess li (and hence they are “one” in quality of their c’hi, things manifest different and distinct
characteristics. The hsin (heart/mind) contains all
li (some insist it is li)
but is obscured by “impure” ch’i; hence we
understand some things and can learn others. Through self-cultivation, one
can purify one’s ch’i and achieve complete and
perfect understanding. (2) Chinese term meaning ‘rite’, ‘ritual’,
‘etiquette’, ‘ritual propriety’. In its earliest use, li
refers to politico-religious rituals such as sacrifices to ancestors or
funerals. Soon the term came to encompass matters of etiquette, such as the
proper way to greet a guest. In some texts the li
include even matters of morality or natural law. Mencius refers to li as virtue, but it is unclear how it is distinct from
his other cardinal virtues. Emphasis upon li is one
of the distinctive features of Confucianism. Critics charge that this
emphasis is a conflation of the natural with the conventional or simply naive
traditionalism. Others claim the notion of li draws
attention to the subtle interdependence of morality and convention, and
points the way to creating genuine communities by treating “the secular as
sacred”. (3) Chinese term meaning ‘profit’ or ‘benefit’, and probably with
the basic meaning of ‘smooth’ or ‘unimpeded’. Mo Tzu (fourth century BCE) regarded
what brings li (benefit) to the public as the
criterion of yi (rightness), and certain other
classical texts also describe yi as the basis for
producing li. Confucians tend to use ‘li ’ perjoratively to refer to what profits oneself or social
groups (e.g. one’s family) to which one belongs, and contrast li with yi. According to them,
one should ideally be guided by yi rather than li, and in the political realm, a preoccupation with li will lead to strife and disorder.” li-ch’i: “technical term
in Chinese Neo-Confucianism primarily used in the context of speculative
cosmology, metaphysics, and ontology for accounting of changing phenomena and
their ethical significance. Li is often rendered as ‘principle’, ‘order’,
‘pattern’, ‘reason’; ch’i as ‘material force’,
‘ether’, or ‘energy’. Recent Neo-Confucian scholarship provides no clear
guide to the li- ch’i
distinction. In ethical contexts, however, the distinction is used to explain
the origin of human good and evil. In its impure state, c’hi
presumably explains the existence of human evils. This perplexing distinction
remains a subject of scholarly inquiry.” tao: “Chinese term
meaning ‘path’, ‘way’, ‘account’. From the sense of a literal path, road, or
way, the term comes to mean a way of doing something (e.g., living one’s life
or organizing society), especially the way advocated by a particular
individual or school of thought (“the way of the Master,” “the way of the Mohists,” etc.). Frequently, it refers to the way of
doing something, the right way (e.g., “The Way has not been put into practice
for a long time”). Tao also came to refer to the linguistic account that
embodies or describes a way. Finally, in some texts the tao
is a metaphysical entity. For example, in Neo-Confucianism, tao is identified with li
(principle). In some contexts it is difficult to tell what sense is
intended.” Tao-hsin, jen-hsin: “Chinese terms
used by Neo-Confucian philosophers to contrast the mind according to the Way
(tao-hsin) and the mind according to man’s artificial,
selfish desires (jen-hsin). When one responds
spontaneously without making discrimination, one is acting according to the
Way. One is naturally happy, sad, angry, and joyful as circumstances require.
But when one’s self is alienated from the Way, one works
only for self-interest, and the emotions and desires are excessive and
deviate from the Mean. In the Confucian tradition sages and worthies take
Heaven (t’ien) as their model, while common people
are urged to take chun-tzu (the superior man) as
their model.” Taoism
(Tao-chia): “A Chinese philosophy identified with
Tao-chia (School of the Way), represented by Chuang
Tzu (between 399 and 295 BCE) and Lao Tzu (6th or 4th cent. BCE). The term
may also refer to the Huang-Lao School (c. 3rd cent. BCE); Neo-Taoists, such
as Wang Pi(226-49 CE) and Kuo
Hsiang (d. 312 CE); and Tao-chiao, a diverse
religious movement. Only the tao-chia is discussed
here. The school derives its name from the word tao
(Way), a term used by Chinese thinkers of almost every persuasion. Taoists
were the first to use the dynamic of the cosmos. Taoists believe that (1)
there is a way the world should be; (2) human beings can understand this and
need to have and follow such knowledge if they and the world are to exist in
harmony; and (3) the world was once in such a harmony. Most early Chinese
thinkers shared similar beliefs, but Taoists are distinct in claiming that
the Way is not codifiable, indeed is ineffable.
Taoists thus are metaphysical and ethical realists, but epistemological skeptics
of an unusual sort, being language skeptics. Taoists further deny that one
can strive successful to attain the Way: Taoist self-cultivation is a process
not of accumulation, but of paring away. One must unweave the social fabric,
forsake one’s cultural conditioning, and abandon rational thought, to be led
instead by one’s tzu jan
(spontaneous) inclinations. With a hsu (tenuous)
mind, one then will perceive the li (pattern) of
the cosmos and live by wu wei
(non-action). Though sharing a strong family resemblance, the Taoisms of Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu are distinct. Lao Tzu
advocates a primitive utopianism in which people enjoy the simple life of
small agrarian communities, indifferent to what is happening in the
neighboring village. Having abandoned cultural achievements such as writing,
they keep accounts by knowing cords. Lao Tzu blames human “cleverness,” which
imposes the “human” on the “Heavenly,” for most of what is bad is in the
world. For him a notion like beauty gives rise to its opposite and only
serves to increase anxiety and dissatisfaction; extolling a virtue, such as
benevolence, only encourages people to affect it hypocritically. Lao Tzu
advocates “turning back” to the time when intellect was young and still
obedient to intuition and instinct. To accomplish this, the Taoist sage must
rule and enforce this view upon the clever, if they should “dare to act.”
Chuang Tzu emphasizes changing oneself more than changing society. He too is
a kind of anti-rationalist and sees wisdom as a “knowing how” rather than a
“knowing that.” He invokes a repertoire of skillful individuals as exemplars
of the Way. Such individuals engage the world and display all the Taoists
virtues. Their minds are hsu (empty) of
preconceptions, and so they perceive the li (pattern)
in each situation. They respond spontaneously and are so tzu
jan; they accord with the tao,
they lead a frictionless existence; they “walk without touching the ground.”
“ t’ien: “Chinese term meaning ‘heaven’, ‘sky’. T’ien
has a range of uses running from the most to the least anthropomorphic. At
one extreme, t’ien is identified with shang ti (High Ancestor or
God). T’ien can be spoken of as having desires and
engaging in purposive actions, such as bestowing the Mandate of Heaven (t’ien ming). T’ien ming has a political and
ethical use. It can be the mandate to rule given to a virtuous individual. It
can also be the moral requirements that apply to each individual, especially
as these are embodied in one’s nature. At the other extreme, thinkers such as
Hsun-Tzu identify t’ien
with natural order. Even in texts where t’ien is
sometimes used anthropomorphically, it can be also used as synonymous with ming (in the sense of fate), or simply to refer to the
sky. After the introduction of Buddhism into China, the phrase ‘Hall of
Heaven’ (t’ien t’ang) is
used to refer to the paradise awaiting some souls after death.” yin, yang: “metaphors used in the classical tradition of Chinese
philosophy to express contrast and difference. Originally they designated the
shady side and the sunny side of a hill, and gradually came to suggest the
way in which one “overshadows” another is some particle aspect or
relationship. Yin and yang are not “principles” or “essences” that help
classify things; rather they are ad hoc explanatory categories that report on
relationships and interactions among immediate concrete things in the world.
Yin and yang always describe relationships that are constitutive of unique
particulars, and provide a vocabulary for “reading” the distinctions that obtain
among them. The complementary nature of the opposition captured in this
pairing expresses the mutuality, interdependence, diversity, and creative
efficacy of the dynamic relationships that are deemed immanent in and
valorize the world. The full range of difference in the world is deemed
explicable through this pairing.” “Ch’ien, k’un ,
in traditional Chinese cosmology, are the names of two most important
trigrams in the system of I-Ching (the Book of
Changes which focused on i-li or meaning and principles).
Ch’ien is composed of three undivided lines, the
symbol of yang, and k’un, three divided lines, the symbol of yin. Ch’ien means
Heaven, the father, creativity; k’un means Earth,
the mother, endurance. The two are complementary; they work together to form
the whole cosmic order. In the system of I-Ching
there are 8 trigrams, the doubling up of the two trigrams forms a hexagram,
and there are a total of sixty-four hexagrams. The first two hexagrams are
also named ch’ien and k’un.”
yu, wu: “Chinese terms literally meaning ‘having’ and
‘nothing’, respectively; they are often rendered into English as ‘being’ and
‘non-being’. But the Chinese never developed the mutually contradictory concepts
of Being and Non-Being in Parmenides’ sense. In Chapter 2 of Tao-te-ching Lao Tzu says that
“being (yu) and non-being (wu)
produce each other.” They appear to be a pair of interdependent concepts. But
in chapter 40 Lao Tzu also says that “being comes from non-being”. It seems
that for Taoism non-being is more fundamental than being, while in
Confucianism the opposite is true. The two traditions were seen to be
complementary, by later scholars.” Source
of quotes: Audi,
Robert, editor, The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy. Cambridge,
England: Cambridge University Press, 1995. For a paper I wrote about
early Chinese Philosophy, see The Relation Between Metaphysics and Ethics in Mencius and Plato |
