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Sophia on the web A Resource Guide for Philosophy Students Created by Jennifer Leslie Torgerson, MA This
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Glossary A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z actuality: the domain of actual facts; what is the case. agnostic: one who doesn't know, or is not certain, if God
exists. altruism: (LT: alter = another, other) (1) the
promotion of the good of others. (2) A selfless and benevolent love for human
kind and dedication toward achieving the well-being of people and society. analytic
judgment: an universal and
necessary judgment; such judgments cannot be contradicted.
Analytical judgments have their predicate concepts contained within
their subject concepts. (Cats are mammals) apperception: self awareness. apeiron: indefinite, or boundless (infinite). a posteriori:
Latin for that which follows a
posteriori judgment: a contingent
judgment that is reliant upon the matters of fact of our experience to be
verified as being either true or false. (The cat is on the mat) appearance/reality
distinction: the belief that
there is a distinction between the world of appearances (change, time, etc.)
and reality (which is unchanging and timeless). a priori:
Latin for that which is prior a
priori judgment: a necessary
judgment that is known to be necessarily true without appeal to sense experience.
(Cats are mammals) arche: stuff
(material cause or basic stuff). argument: a group of statements containing at least one
premise and one conclusion. atheistic: arguments against the existence of God, or one who
does not believe in the existence of God. atomos: classical Greek for indivisible. authentic: (Sartre) living authentically can have many
meanings, but for Sartre, it means realizing that existence precedes essence,
and one is responsible for one’s actions and choices in the world. One must
make one’s self. Axiology: is the study of
value. What is to be valued? (axios =
value; logos = the study of) BEING: The transcendent
(noumenal) world of the Absolute, perfect,
unchanging Ideal Forms of which The Good is the primary and the source of all
the others such as Justice, Temperance, Courage.
The world of the Eternal Forms
is real, true, permanent world of reason. Abstractions, such as redness,
equality, and humanness, that one can conceive and
recognize in a variety of things prove that the Forms exist. BECOMING: the phenomenal
world (the world of appearances) composed of things in a state of flux
attempting to (but unsuccessfully) emulate (imitate, participate in, partake
of) the Ideal Forms. The phenomenal world is the world of our sensuous,
ordinary, everyday experiences which are changing and illusory. categorical
imperative: is the necessary
and absolute moral law believed to be the ultimate rational foundation for
all moral conduct. "So act that you can will the maxim (principle) of
your action to be an universal law binding upon the
will of every other rational person." Categorical imperatives are
absolutely binding. chorismos:
means separation in classical
Greek. coherence
theory of truth: true statements
fit our web of beliefs. correspondence
theory of truth: true statements
correspond (match) reality. Complex ideas: are compounded
out of simple ideas, and the mind is quite capable of imagining complex
arrangements of simple ideas that do not in fact correspond to anything in
the world, for example an unicorn. conclusion: a statement that is supported by a premise; that
which is being argued for. consciousness: feelings (immediate) prior to ideas about
those feelings (pre-language). Cosmology: is the study of
the cause of the universe. (cosmos = world, universe; logos
= the study of) Dasein: German for being there (Heidegger) of being in the
world and it relatedness; features: (1) factuality; (2) existentiality; (3) fallenness (not being authentic- nonunique). Deductive logic: uses arguments
which have conclusions that necessarily follow from the premise (s).
In example: (1) All
men are mortal.
(2) Socrates is a human.
______________________
Therefore, Socrates is
mortal. deontological
ethics: Duty-based or
rule based ethical systems, such as the Golden Rule (do to others as you
would have them to do you). An action's worth is determined by whether
or not the rule is followed. The rules are intended to be universal
laws, applicable to everyone at all times. It is everyone's duty to
follow the rules. (deon means
duty) determinism: the theory that every event has a cause. dualist:
one who believes that there
is a duality of substances, or that there are two substances in the universe
(i.e. material and immaterial substance). Egoistic hedonism: the doctrine that
the pursuit of one's own pleasure is the highest good and the criterion of
right action. Bentham revived hedonism with his act utilitarianism in the
late 18th century. But that is for the chapter on Utilitarianism. eminently:
degree, or pre-eminent manner
(a priori knowledge of causality). empiricism: the view that all human knowledge is acquired from
sense experience (via the 5 senses: touch, taste, smell, hearing, and sight)
or a posteriori which is Latin for "that which follows
after." All knowledge is acquired after sensible experience, or
post-experientially. entelechy:
A thing's potential realized.
The end toward which one strives to achieve or actualize, which is in
all things in nature. It is also the combination of the life force (anima)
with the body; which strives to actualize its full potential. epiphenomenalism: the view that all reality is a product of material
causation. All substance is material in nature. The mind is the
only exception. Although it is not composed of material, or, its
intellect is not material substance, it is a consequent effect of material
causation. Mind is not reduced to matter in this view of materialism. Epistemology: is the study of
knowledge. How do we know? (episteme = knowledge; logos
= the study of) Ethics: the study of
morality (ethos means customs, manners, morals). Ethical egoism: (GK: ego =
I) The view that (a) each person aims to promote his or her own well-being
and interests, and ought to; (b) the summum bonum (highest
good) of life should be to produce the most satisfactions (pleasures, goals,
desires, needs) possible for oneself; and (c) one's own success and happiness
should be the primary and ultimate worth and from this principle all other
values stem. Hobbes referred to ethical egoism as enlightened self-interest. evil: (1) the privation of goodness; (2) is non-being,
or not a being, or nothing (the absence of something, namely good). (The Law of the) Excluded
Middle: Something either is or it is
not. (The middle position is excluded, namely the impossibility of something
both being and not being simultaneously.) existence: making choices (being) [existentialism]. existentialism: opposed to both rationalistic (a priori) and
empirical (a posteriori) doctrines, and concludes that the problem of being,
not that of epistemology, must take precedence in philosophical
investigations. Being cannot be made a subjective or objective enquiry, since
being is revealed to the individual by reflection on his own unique concrete
existence in time and space. Existence is basic. It is the fact of an
individual’s presence and participation in a changing and potentially
dangerous world. The self of which he is aware is a thinking being, and he
understands himself in terms of his experience of himself and his situations.
first cause: (primary) is completely independent in its
causality, it is not dependent upon another for its existence. for
itself (pour-soi): human is consciousness, fluid, lack of determinate
structure, potent. Alternatives to choice or things are distinguished by
their not being something else. [Sartre] formal:
a direct correspondence with
what is found in the effect (based on a priori knowledge of
causality). formal
falsity: occurs only when
there is an error in judgment. free will:
initiating uncaused action. Free choice,
will, or volition. God gives us the will to choose the good, but we have the
ability to do otherwise. Thus, if we choose evil, instead of good, we are
responsible.
hedonism: (GK: hedone =
pleasure) the principle that pleasure is the sole and proper aim of human
action. The earliest and most extreme version of ethical hedonism was first advocated
by the Cyrenaics, (Aristippus
being the founder of the school was from Cyrene), 4th cent. BCE) who claimed
that the art of living consists in maximizing the enjoyment of each moment
through pleasures of the senses and the intellect. In contrast, the
Epicureans (Epicurus 341- 270 BCE) laid emphasis on the attainment of
enduring pleasures and the avoidance of pain, stressing the role of prudence
and discipline in securing the supreme good: peace of mind. Both the Cyrenaic and the Epicureans were egoistic hedonists. [Cyrenaics +, Epicureans -]. Aristippus
is to Bentham as Epicurus is to Mill. hylomorphic
composition: the view that
everything in the natural world has a two-fold composition of matter (hyle) and form (morphe). hypothetical
imperative: command
one to do X only if you wanted Y. This conditional statement is not
absolutely binding. Hypothetical means 'optional', or contingent. Hypothetical Syllogisms: A hypothetical
syllogism contains at least one conditional proposition or statement, which
takes the form of "if (antecedent) then (consequent)". A rule for
pure, valid hypothetical syllogisms is: Any pure hypothetical syllogism is
valid in which the first premise and the conclusion have the same antecedent,
the second premise and the conclusion have the same consequent, and the
consequent of the first premise is the same as the antecedent of the second
premise. The pure form is: 1. if P then Q, 2. if Q then R; therefore, if P
then R. Two other valid forms of hypothetical syllogisms are Modus Ponens (Latin
for "mood that affirms") and Modus Tollens
(Latin for "mood that denies"). Ideas: are according to
Hume, fainter copies of impressions in imagination. (Theory of) Ideal Forms: "It
is the belief in a transcendent world of eternal and absolute beings,
corresponding to every kind of thing that there is, and causing in particular
things their essential nature." idealism: is best defined as the view that all reality is
immaterial, or idea. (The Law of) Identity: Something is what
it is. immanent
being: God would be immanent being if His existence is part of all the beings
in the universe, as in pantheism, hence, God would be indwelling. The
Christian God is distinct from humans, and all others in the universe, and
hence is not pantheistic, which means that all is God. immanent form:
the view that form is
indwelling in the matter. Impressions: are according to
Hume, sensations or immediate feelings as those of pleasure and pain, what he
calls Impressions of Reflection. indeterminism: the view that every event has a cause,
except for the human will. (also called soft determinism) Inductive logic: uses arguments
which have conclusions that go beyond the information contained in the
premise (s). It
is also called inductive generalization. In example: (1) The
sun rose every day in the past.
(2) The sun rose today.
______________________
Therefore, the sun will rise tomorrow. (principle of) induction: the behavior of things in the future will be like
the behavior of things in the past (most likely). in itself (en-soi): being an alert object, complete and fixed (unrelatedness within and without) [Sartre] innate idea:
ideas which are inborn, or recollected
because they were already in the mind to recollect, even prior to any sense
experience, and even prior to birth the ideas were in the mind. (theory of) innate ideas: The theory that the "fundamental ideas or
principles are built right into the mind itself and require only to be
developed and brought to maturity." Because Plato held that the source
of our knowledge is innate idea, Plato was a rationalist. Interactionism: (Descartes) The mind and body interact, yet
remain separate and distinct from each other by the mysterious function of
the pineal gland. (pin-e-al) Substances interact;
they oppose each other; they logically and ontologically exclude each other.
The can be conceived and exist without each other. It is contradictory to say
that thinking occurs but there is nothing doing the thinking. It is
contradictory to say that spatial dimension exists but there is nothing that
is extended or that has that dimension. intuition: springs from the
light of pure reason alone (nothing can be added to intuition; it is
simple)
knowledge as
initiated in an experience: Knowledge can
only be initiated by an experience (or phenomena) and that the mind is unable
to know the real source or ground of experience. Kant's phenomenalism
is an example of this type of skepticism. Kant maintained that the best we
could do was describe the surface appearance of things (phenomena: the object
of perception; that which appears; that which is perceived) because the real
nature of things, the way things really are (noumena:
according to Kant: that which transcends experience and all rational
knowledge; but according to Plato: that which is apprehended by our reason
alone, without any involvement of our senses, intuition, or other levels of
apprehension; Plato was not a skeptic) is not accessible to us. Logic: is the study of
arguments and argument forms. (logos = argument, word) material
falsity: occurs when ideas represent
non-things. materialism:
the view that all substance
is material in nature; the view that all of reality is material. mean:
a type of average; the
result of a sum of a group of numbers being divided by the number of members
in the group. mechanism:
the view that reality is
matter in motion. Typically, matter is seen as bits, called atoms, and
there is space (void) to facilitate the motion of the atoms. median:
a type of average; in a
group of numbers, there are as many numbers in the group that are larger as
are smaller than the median. Metaphysics: is the study of
reality. What is real? (meta = beyond, after; physis = nature) metaphysical
dualism: is the belief in
two separate, distinct substances. Descartes believed that humans had a
two-fold composition, those of soul substance (or mind) and body substance. mode:
a type of average; in a
group of numbers, the mode is the number that occurs most frequently. Monad means unity or
unit, and Leibniz argued in Monadology that
only units can be substances. monist: one who believes that there is one kind of basic
stuff or substance to the universe, from which everything is composed. monotheism: the view that
there is only one God moral evil:
evil that results from personal depravity.
(murder, torture, evils caused by man upon another man) natural evil:
evil that results from natural causes
(disease, deformity, natural disasters, etc.) naturalistic fallacy: The mistake
(which is not universally agreed always is a mistake) of deducing conclusions
about what ought to be from premises that state only what is the case; or the
other way about. Moore was first to name the fallacy, but now everyone refers
to a much better and characteristically ironic statement in Hume's A
Treatise of Human Nature: "In every system of morality, which I
have hitherto met with, I have always remark'd,
that the author proceeds for some time in the ordinary way of reasoning [...]
when of a sudden I am supriz'd to find , that instead of the usual copulations of
propositions, is, and is not, I meet with no proposition that is connected
with an ought or an ought not. This change is imperceptible, but is, however,
of the last consequence. For as this ought or ought not, expresses some new
relation or affirmation, 'tis necessary that it should be observe'd
and explain'd: and at the same time that a reason should
be given, for what seems altogether inconceivable, how this new relation can
be a deduction from others, which are entirely different from it." (III(i) 1). The insistence that the naturalistic fallacy is
indeed a fallacy is called Hume's law. natural law: The rationally knowable morality which is founded
in God's will for His creatures. Moral law is not innate, but deduced from
experience according to Aquinas and Locke. necessary
condition: this is a necessary condition
for that if and only if that cannot be without this. (i.e.
Oxygen is a necessary for fire). necessary
truth: a proposition is said to be
necessarily true if and only if the denial of that proposition would involve
a self-contradiction. nihilism: The extreme stand that human beings can never
really attain certain or reliable knowledge about anything. Gorgias, another sophist (c. 525 BCE) held that nothing
exists because there is no such thing as true knowledge. (nihil
means nothing in Latin) nominalism: (from Latin nomen,
nominalis = name) the theory that things do
not have essences, or that universals do not have an existence. Definitions,
and languages in general, do not refer to things but deal with the names
(terms) we attach to things. Therefore forms would have no external existence,
but are merely names by which we group things with similar features. [Ockham:
"Entities are not to be multiplied without necessity" or Entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem. Also known as the principle of
ontological economy. These actual words are not found in the extent works of
William of Ockham (c. 1285 - 1349), an English Franciscan and anti-realist.] (The Law of) Non-Contradiction: Nothing
can both be and not be at the same time and in the same respect. Remember
Parmenides' phrasing of the law of non-contradiction? ("What is and cannot not be; and what is not and can
not be."). noumena:
that which transcends
appearance objective
idealism: Objective idealism is the
view that all reality is composed of ideas, and these ideas exist
independently of any mind. An example of this type of metaphysical theory of
objective idealism is that of Plato's theories of Being and Becoming and the
Ideal Forms. Plato held that the material, phenomenal world (the world of
appearances) is in a state of flux attempting to emulate (unsuccessfully) the
Ideal Forms (the noumenal world of reality). The
Forms exist independently of the consciousness. The noumenal
world is the true permanent world of reality. The Forms, which are
ideas, are not in any mind, not human nor God's, but
exist independently of any subjective viewpoint. ontology: the study of being as being. ousia:
the this; what a thing is; whatness, what it was to be; substance BUT best called
essence (fem. past part. of ti en einai [to be, in classical Greek], in the
imperative). panentheism:
the view that God is in all
things. pantheism: the view that all
is God particular: individual things are particulars. perception: awareness of the objects of our experience. phenomena:
that which appears phenomenalism: Phenomena is that which appears. The phenomenalist says that substance and causality are no
more than bundles of perception. Therefore there is no rational knowledge
beyond what is disclosed by the phenomena of perceptions. Mind is no more
than a bundle of perceptions. phenomenology: (Husserl) Begins with a precise inspection of
one’s own consciousness, and particularly intellectual, processes. In this
introspection all assumptions about the wider and external causes and
consequences of these internal processes have to be excluded or bracketed.
Husserl insisted that this was an a priori investigation of the essences or
meanings common to the thoughts of different minds. Philosophy: is the love of
wisdom. (philo = love; sophia = widsom) pleasure principle: (What Bentham
called the principle of utility) an action is right if
and only if the action produces a greater balance of pleasure over pain, or
at least as much pleasure as pain, than any other action the agent could have
performed. Pleasure is the principle of right action. pluralist: one who believes that there
is more than one basic stuff, or many substances in the universe, from which
everything is composed. polytheism: the view that
there are many gods potency: means the source of movement or change, which is
in another thing than the thing moved. (also
potentiality- in contrast to actuality- the domain of actual facts, or the
achievement of a things' full potential.) pragmatic
theory of truth: true statements
have "cash value" or work. predication: the attribution of a property to a subject. pre-established
harmony: This solution, to the
mind-body problem, was proposed by the German philosopher, Leibniz and is
also called parallelism (or parallel functioning). Leibniz wrote Monadology and Discourse on Metaphysics (to
name only 2). Mind and body do not interact. God has established an harmony between mind and body. Mental states and bodily
states correspond at every moment due to this preestablished
harmony. premise: a statement that provides reasons, grounds, or
supports the conclusion to follow. prima facie: (LT: at first sight) Prima facie evidence is such
that, if not latter contradicted or in some way explained, is sufficient to
sustain one's claim. primary
qualities: are about the primary
qualities of an object, and are about qualities of matter such as form,
extension, motion, number, and so on. Therefore, primary qualities are
objective in nature. privation: if something has not one of the attributes which a
thing might naturally have, even if this thing itself would not naturally
have it; e.g. a plant is said to be 'deprived' of eyes. psychological
egoism: (1) the thesis that all
individuals do in fact seek their own interests at all times. There is no
purely unselfish act. (2) The theory that all human actions are consciously or
unconsciously motivated by a desire for one's own well-being and
satisfactions; it only appears that one acts for the benefit of others.
rationalism: the view that all human knowledge is acquired
through reason as the primary source, prior (or a priori which is
Latin for "that which precedes") and superior to sense experience. realism: the theory that universals such as Forms, must
exist only within the objects in the external world, as opposed to the realm
of Ideas or Forms. [Aristotle] (Theory of) Recollection: Plato suggests that we are already born in possession of knowledge of
which we are not conscious of but will readily recollect (recollectus
in Latin) if carefully prompted. relativism: in the Protagorean
sense, relativism is a theory about the relativity of knowledge and the
relativity of sense perception. Often referred to as homo mensura (man is the measure in Latin). Therefore it
would be erroneous to say that one person is right (has the truth) and
another person is wrong (does not have the truth) about sense perception.
Truth does not exist independently of a perceiver and his assertion that
something is true. second
cause: (secondary) is a cause which
is dependent of another. The finite cause needs God to support and sustain
its existence. secondary
qualities: are about the qualities of an
object such as color, tastes, sound, odors, and the like. These secondary
qualities are not in the material substance; they are in the mind or they are
the way in which the object affects the mind or the knower, and they vary
from person to person. Therefore, secondary qualities are subjective in
nature. Simple ideas: have no other
ideas contained within them, and like atoms cannot be created nor destroyed;
and are ideas such as yellow, hot, sweet. skepticism: the view that all knowledge is beyond reasonable
proof. Skepticism ranges from a complete doubt of everything, to a tentative
doubt in a process of reaching certainty. social
contract: The agreement of a group of
people to establish social organizations and regulations for the preservation
of basic freedoms and rights. Socratic or Dialectic Method: The
crux of the dialectic method is that the teacher should through patient
questioning bring the pupil to some true conclusion, without the teacher's
telling the pupil that the conclusion is true. Note how Socrates demonstrates
to Euthyphro that he is not certain what impiety
is, but this still does not deter Euthyphro from
prosecuting his own father for impiety. Is it good because it is loved by the
gods, or is it good because the gods love it? But Socrates demonstrates that
to be truly good, a thing must be good in and of itself. It is for this
reason, its goodness, that the gods love it, they do
not make it good by their mere love of the thing. But hasn't Euthyphro committed an act of impiety by prosecuting his
father without proper knowledge of what piety means? There is real danger to
being mistaken. Socrates is so skeptical of the world, in order that he might
not be mistaken in his knowledge about the world. soft
determinism: (or indeterminism)
the theory that some events do not have a cause, or are free (undetermined). solipsism: the theory that one can know (a) that one exists
and (b) that one is having certain ideas. All else is subject to denial or to
suspension of judgment. (solus means alone
in Latin) state of
nature: The human condition of
natural freedoms and rights prior to the imposition of social organization
and regulation (or social contract). It is a state, therefore, that may be
thought of as either an alleged historical fact, or an
hypothetical claim about what would be or would have been the case, given
certain conditions that may or may not have occurred. substance (simple essence): [substantia in Latin: that which underlies,
or upholds something] according to Descartes- Substance is that which can be
conceived alone by itself without needing something else in terms of which it
is known, and without depending on something else for its existence; a thing
which can exist independently (i.e. a stone, me). This would effectively
leave only one true substance, God substance. subjective
ethics: The theory that ethical
judgments such as "good" means "I approve" of certain
actions. Moral values are based on feelings, thoughts, and desires which have
no objective reference in the world. subjective
idealism: The view that reality is our
experience of things. "To be is to be perceived" (Esse est percipi) according to Bishop George Berkeley (1685-
1753), an Irish philosopher of Irish descent. Berkeley wrote several works,
but the most important is Three Dialogues between Hylas
and Philonous (1713), which was his third work completed when he was 28. Berkeley meant by esse est percipi that nothing but minds and ideas exist. To
say that an idea exists means, according to him, that it is being perceived
by some mind. For ideas, Esse est percipi: to be is to be
perceived. Mind themselves, however, are not
similarly dependent for their existence on being perceived. Minds are
perceivers. To give Berkeley's full meaning we must say: To be is to be
perceived (ideas) or to be a perceiver. All that is real is a conscious mind
or some perception or idea held by such a mind. How, Berkeley asks, could we
speak of anything that was other than an idea or mind? The mind exists as it
is thought in the mind of God. Berkeley was also known for holding the
position that there is no material substance, hence Berkeley is also, and
prefers to be, called an immaterialist. sufficient
condition: this is a sufficient
condition for that if and only if this by itself is enough to guarantee that.
(i.e. five nickels are sufficient for twenty-five
cents). (The principle of) sufficient reason is: that for every fact (or reason) there is a reason
why it is so and not otherwise. suspension of
judgment: All assumptions or conclusions
are questioned until they pass the test of critical analysis. Socrates
practiced this type of skepticism by insisting that we answer our own
questions. synthetic
judgment: a contingent
judgment; such judgments can be contradicted. Synthetical
judgments have predicates which contain information which goes beyond the
information contained in the subject concept. (The cat is on the mat) tabula rasa: (Latin for clean tablet) Called blank
slate, or white paper (by Locke), it is the condition of the mind at birth,
prior to sense experience. tacit
consent: The consent and support of
social organizations and regulations by virtue of an individual's continued
participation in them. telos:
end (result) or purpose in
classical Greek. teleological
ethics: End-based ethical
systems or what is called consequentialism.
An action's worth is determined by the consequences. (telos means end) teleology: the study (of the
cause) of the end or purpose of the universe theistic: arguments for the
existence of God, or one who believes in God (through faith, or reason) traditional
liberalism: The traditional
notion of liberalism has been challenged in this century, and new meanings
have been applied to it. The result is that the term today is ambiguous, and
everyone applying the label must specify exactly what they mean. Traditional
liberalism gives primacy to the individual and his rights, where prior
primacy was given to the state. transcendental: According to theists, God exists beyond and
independent of the world, or is beyond experience. transcendental idealism: the view
that reality is idea, but the true reality (things in themselves) transcends
the world of appearance truths of
fact: Truths of fact are contingent
and truths of reason are necessary. Truths of fact are statements that are
not necessarily true since they may be denied without contradiction, they
just might be true of something about something in this world, or might be
true of something in a particular possible world. Statements that are only true about some objects in the universe and
not true of all objects in the universe. truths of
reason: Truths of reason
are not true by definition. They are true everywhere, in every possible
world, and to the externally real world they do apply descriptively. No
power, not even God’s can change these truths. An example is the law of noncontradiction, etc. universal:
the property predicated of
all the individuals of a certain sort or class. (principle
of) universal causation: every event has a
cause.
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